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CRITICAL PERIODS IN LEARNING There are inherent limits to how much…
CRITICAL PERIODS IN LEARNING
There are inherent limits to how much can be learned. Limits on learning can include the individual’s biological preparedness for learning, certain physical characteristics of the learner, and the genetic limits on the learner’s ability. For instance, chimpanzees can learn to use American Sign Language (ASL) to communicate with humans but they are not able to vocalize human language due to their biology. As such, the chimpanzees’ physical characteristics set limits in that they cannot learn how to speak.
The role of heredity has been observed in learning. Genes contribute to differences between species (e.g., humans and other primates), as well as in differences within species (e.g., differences in intelligence among humans). At the beginning of the course, you examined innate species-specific behaviors such as modal action patterns, genetic behavioral traits, and reflexes. However, it is important to be mindful that learned behavior is not passed on to future generations, which means that each individual must learn many of the same skills and abilities (e.g., language) acquired by its parents, thus limiting what any one individual can learn in its lifetime.
The role of early experiences can be vital to learning. For example, prenatal exposure to drugs can interfere with neurological development, resulting in limited learning ability. Also, young children are especially vulnerable to neurological damage from exposure to lead, and other toxins in the environment. Malnutrition during prenatal development and early childhood, as well as head injuries, can likewise prevent normal neurological development resulting in reduced learning ability.
Once again, we examine how nature (biology) and nurture (the environment) factor into learning and behavior. Additionally, there may be critical periods for learning. Ethology is a discipline concerned with how adaptive behaviors have evolved and how they function to help a species survive, and ethologists have discovered that certain kinds of learning may occur only during sensitive, or critical periods, in development.
Konrad Lorenz was an ethologist who studied the contributions of the inherited, biological bases of behavior, and how those behaviors interact with particular environments. Lorenz discovered that when he removed newly hatched goslings from an incubator they began to follow him around a yard as if he were their mother. Lorenz termed this early infant bonding experience with the chicks imprinting, and is considered a form of learning.
According to ethologists, certain behaviors of newborns, such as crying, may form the basis for attachment, which is the mutual system of physical, social, and emotional support (i.e., bonding) between caregiver and infant. There is evidence to suggest that there may be critical periods for attachments to form. Harry and Margaret Harlow were interested in finding out why this bonding phenomenon occurred and conducted numerous studies with infant rhesus monkeys in order to understand the vital components to bonding (See Chapter 13, and Harlow’s Studies on Dependency in Monkeys located in optional learning resources this week, for additional information about these studies).
Harlow’s Experiments: There were several variations on the original experiment and the following is a condensed version and summary of the overall findings:
1. Condition one of the study consisted of a “surrogate mother.” This surrogate mother was a tube-shaped wire frame covered in soft terry cloth with an attached “head,” complete with eyes and mouth. A bottle for nursing the infant monkeys was attached to the wireframe.
2. The second condition of the study of the study consisted of the same surrogate, terry cloth mother with the attached head, but with no bottle. The infant monkeys were fed using a food bowl.
3. The third condition of the study consisted of the same surrogate mother with the attached head, but with no soft covering. A bottle for nursing the infant monkeys was attached to the wireframe.
4. In the fourth condition, the monkeys were raised in isolation, by themselves or in small groups, with access to a food bowl, but without a mother model.
Results: Infant monkeys in the first condition were very attracted to the surrogate mother, and spent hours snuggling and clinging to it. These babies thrived, and they displayed the best social and emotional developmental outcomes as adult monkeys. The babies in the second condition displayed similar developmental outcomes as the first condition. The babies in the third and fourth conditions, respectively, did not fare well. Many of the babies in the third and fourth conditions died despite having access to a food source. The surviving babies raised in isolation displayed the poorest developmental outcomes, as they were severely anxious and socially inept in their adulthood.
The conclusion of Harlow’s studies illustrated that there appears to be critical periods for maternal attachment and acquiring social skills for the monkeys. It has been speculated that there may be critical periods for parental-child attachments, and social skills development, in humans; however, it is still unclear if this is the case primarily because it would be extremely unethical to test experimentally.
Developmental psychologists have proposed that the first 12 years of human life may be a critical period to learn a language. Some research in this area involves studies of feral children (e.g., human children who have lived away from human contact from a young agesee Wild Child: The Story of Feral Children located in the Optional Learning Resources for more information). Keep in mind that learning language is not the same as being able to speak or vocalize the language (as in the previous examplesome chimpanzees are able to learn ASL, which is a formal language system, but are not able to vocalize human language).
For the Discussion this week, you will apply these concepts to the examination of possible critical periods in learning for humans, and examine the linkage between biological preparedness and environmental factors (i.e., nature and nurture) that could facilitate learning, (e.g., parenting, education), and inhibit learning (e.g., deprivation, illness), during critical periods.
Here are some potential critical period topics to further investigate:
First language acquisition
Second language acquisition
Vision
Auditory processing
Musical ability
Vestibular system
Attachment
Parenting
RESOURCES
Be sure to review the Learning Resources before completing this activity.
Click the weekly resources link to access the resources.
WEEKLY RESOURCES
Chance, P. (2014). Learning and behavior (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Chapter 13, “The Limits of Learning”
Week 6 Test Study Guide (Word Document)Download Week 6 Test Study Guide (Word Document)
Callahan, D., Wilson, E., Birdsall, I., Estabrook-Fishinghawk, B., Carson, G., Ford, S., & Yob, I. (2012). Expanding our understanding of social change: A report from the definition task force of the HLC special emphasis project. Download Expanding our understanding of social change: A report from the definition task force of the HLC special emphasis project.Minneapolis, MN: Walden University.
TO PREPARE FOR THIS DISCUSSION:
Read Chapter 13 of your course text.
Review again if needed Chapter 1 of your course text about “nature and nurture.”
Reflecting on the research studies on critical periods and learning with animals presented in Chapter 13, and based on the list above, consider a possible critical period that might occur during human development.
For an enhanced understanding of these concepts, you are encouraged to also explore the Optional Learning Resources for this week, as well search for additional examples online.
Think about how nature (e.g., biological preparedness) and nurture (environmental factors) could facilitate learning, and could inhibit learning, during critical periods.
With these thoughts in mind:
Post
In the first line of your post, add your critical period topic (e.g., Critical Period in Learning a Second Language).
Provide one example of a possible critical period for learning in human development and give your rationale for choosing your example.
Discuss the possible link between nature and nurture that could both facilitate learning, and interfere with learning, during the critical period.
: Be sure to support the responses within your Discussion post, and in your colleague reply, with evidence from the assigned Learning Resources.
